كيف تكتب بوضوح في الأوراق الأكاديمية

الفاعل + الفعل أولًا:

من أو ماذا فعل ماذا. ثم القيد أو المنهج أو الاستثناء.

الفعل في الفعل النحوي:

لا “the implementation of X resulted in Y”، بل “X did Y”.

المألوف ثم الجديد:

المعلومات القديمة في صدر الجملة. النتيجة أو الرقم أو الادعاء في النهاية.

المصطلح عند أول استخدام:

الاسم الكامل (ABBR)، ثم ABBR. خط مائل على أول مصطلح مفتاحي تعرّفه فورًا (APA §6.22).

احذف، لا تزيّن:

احذف “the fact that” و“it should be noted that” و“it is interesting that” (UNC Sciences). أبقِ الجملة التابعة الباقية.

Check for continuity in words, concepts, and thematic development across the paper. Explain relationships between ideas clearly. Present ideas in a logical order. Use clear transitions to smoothly connect sentences, paragraphs, and ideas.

Choose words and phrases carefully and deliberately. Eliminate wordiness, redundancy, evasiveness, circumlocution, overuse of the passive voice, and clumsy prose.

Do not use jargon, contractions, or colloquialisms.

Avoid overusing both short, simple sentences and long, involved sentences; instead, use varied sentence lengths.

Avoid both single-sentence paragraphs and paragraphs longer than one double-spaced page.

Use clear and precise language. Use a professional tone and professional language.

Do not use jargon, contractions, colloquialisms, or creative literary devices.

Check for anthropomorphistic language (i.e., attributing human actions to inanimate objects or nonhuman animals).

Make logical comparisons using clear word choice and sentence structure.

We argue here that complexity of thought need not lead to impenetrability of expression.

The fundamental purpose of scientific discourse is not the mere presentation of information and thought, but rather its actual communication.

It does not matter how pleased an author might be to have converted all the right data into sentences and paragraphs; it matters only whether a large majority of the reading audience accurately perceives what the author had in mind.

But the most important goal of academic writing is not to sound smart—it is to communicate an argument or information clearly and convincingly.

Using simple words does not indicate simple thoughts.

In an academic argument paper, what makes the thesis and argument sophisticated are the connections presented in simple, clear language.

First, remember that your goal in academic writing is not to sound intelligent, but to get your intelligent point across.

When given a choice between a familiar and a technical or obscure term, the more familiar term is preferable if it doesn’t reduce precision.

دقيق:

population density is positively correlated with disease transmission rate

أقل دقة:

population density is positively related to disease transmission rate

كلمة مستخدمة خطأ:

Cree Indians were a monotonous culture until French and British settlers arrived.

مراجعة:

Cree Indians were a homogenous culture.

دلالة غير مرغوبة:

I sprayed the ants in their private places.

مراجعة:

I sprayed the ants in their hiding places.

مصطلحات متخصصة:

The dialectical interface between neo-Platonists and anti-disestablishment Catholics offers an algorithm for deontological thought.

مراجعة:

The dialogue between neo-Platonists and certain Catholic thinkers is a model for deontological thought.

مشحون:

Society teaches young girls that beauty is their most important quality. In order to prevent eating disorders and other health problems, we must change society.

مُسمّى:

Contemporary American popular media, like magazines and movies, teach young girls that beauty is their most important quality. In order to prevent eating disorders and other health problems, we must change the images and role models girls are offered.

The goal of concise writing is to use the most effective words. Concise writing does not always have the fewest words, but it always uses the strongest ones.

مطنب (14 كلمة):

The politician talked about several of the merits of after-school programs in his speech

موجز (8 كلمات):

The politician touted after-school programs in his speech.

كليشيه:

France bit off more than it could chew in Vietnam, and America’s intervention was too little, too late.

مراجعة:

As the French faltered in Vietnam, even American intervention could not save the collapsing regime.

كومة مقيّدات:

Most people usually think that many puppies are generally pretty cute.

مراجعة:

Most people think that puppies are cute.

زوج زائد:

Adrienne fulfilled all our hopes and dreams when she saved the whole entire planet.

مراجعة:

Adrienne fulfilled all our hopes when she saved the planet.

مراوغ:

قد يكون من الممكن أن نقترح أنه ربما توجد علاقة ما بين هذه المتغيرات.

حذر على نحو مناسب:

تشير البيانات إلى علاقة بين هذه المتغيرات.

Readers expect a grammatical subject to be followed immediately by the verb.

Anything of length that intervenes between subject and verb is read as an interruption, and therefore as something of lesser importance.

Make subjects short and concrete, ideally naming the character that performs the action expressed by the verb that follows.

Avoid interrupting the subject and verb with more than a word or two.

Put key actions in verbs, not in nouns.

Put information familiar to readers at the beginning of a sentence, new information at the end.

Avoid long introductory phrases: get to a short, familiar subject quickly.

الأصل المنشور:

The smallest of the URF's (URFA6L), a 207-nucleotide (nt) reading frame overlapping out of phase the NH2-terminal portion of the adenosinetriphosphatase (ATPase) subunit 6 gene has been identified as the animal equivalent of the recently discovered yeast H+-ATPase subunit 8 gene.

مراجعة تجريبية إن كان تعريف 207-nt مهمًا:

The smallest of the URF's is URFA6L, a 207-nucleotide (nt) reading frame overlapping out of phase the NH2-terminal portion of the adenosinetriphosphatase (ATPase) subunit 6 gene; it has been identified as the animal equivalent of the recently discovered yeast H+-ATPase subunit 8 gene.

مراجعة تجريبية إن كان ذلك التعريف حاشية:

The smallest of the URF's (URFA6L) has been identified as the animal equivalent of the recently discovered yeast H+-ATPase subunit 8 gene.

الفقرة التي استقرا عليها (الافتتاح):

The smallest of the URF's, URFA6L, has been identified as the animal equivalent of the recently discovered yeast H+-ATPase subunit 8 gene; but the functional significance of other URF's has been more elusive.

معقّد:

The osmoregulatory organ, which is located at the base of the third dorsal spine on the outer margin of the terminal papillae and functions by expelling excess sodium ions, activates only under hypertonic conditions.

أوضح:

Located on the outer margin of the terminal papillae at the base of the third dorsal spine, the osmoregulatory organ expels excess sodium ions under hypertonic conditions.

...to confirm the nature of electrical breakdown of nitrogen in uniform fields at relatively high pressures and interelectrode gaps that approach those obtained in engineering practice, prior to the determination of the processes that set the criterion for breakdown in the above-mentioned gases and mixtures in uniform and non-uniform fields of engineering significance.

مُطنِب:

The reason for the failure of the economic system of the island was the inability of Gilligan in finding adequate resources without incurring expenses at the hands of the headhunters on the other side of the island.

مراجعة:

Gilligan hurt the economic system of the island because he couldn’t find adequate resources without angering the headhunters.

غير واضح:

Having finished with studying, the pizza was quickly eaten.

واضح:

Having finished with studying, the students quickly ate the pizza.

“Bees disperse pollen” and “Pollen is dispersed by bees” are two different but equally respectable sentences about the same facts. The first tells us something about bees; the second tells us something about pollen.

A sentence is too long when it has more viable candidates for stress positions than there are stress positions available.

Follow a grammatical subject as soon as possible with its verb.

Place in the stress position the “new information” you want the reader to emphasize.

Place the person or thing whose “story” a sentence is telling at the beginning of the sentence, in the topic position.

Place appropriate “old information” (material already stated in the discourse) in the topic position for linkage backward and contextualization forward.

Articulate the action of every clause or sentence in its verb.

In general, provide context for your reader before asking that reader to consider anything new.

In general, try to ensure that the relative emphases of the substance coincide with the relative expectations for emphasis raised by the structure.

Large earthquakes along a given fault segment do not occur at random intervals because it takes time to accumulate the strain energy for the rupture.

Large earthquakes The rates Therefore...one subsequent mainshocks great plate boundary ruptures the southern segment of the San Andreas fault the smaller the standard deviation...

In our experience, the misplacement of old and new information turns out to be the No. 1 problem in American professional writing today.

Put in the topic position the old information that links backward; put in the stress position the new information you want the reader to emphasize.

Readers expect the action of a sentence to be articulated by the verb.

Articulate the action of every clause or sentence in its verb.

مثقل بالأسماء:

The discovery of the aliens was made by the government.

الفعل أولًا:

The government discovered the aliens.

مقدمة فارغة:

There is a need for further study of aliens.

مراجعة:

We need to study aliens further.

فعل ضعيف:

The aliens have a positive effect on our ecosystem.

فعل أقوى:

The aliens improve our ecosystem.

Use abbreviations sparingly and usually when they are familiar to readers, save considerable space, and appear at least three times in the paper.

Define abbreviations, including abbreviations for group authors, on first use.

Use italics for the first use of key terms or phrases accompanied by a definition.

Keep technical terms to the places where they are needed. Define abbreviations at first use and use them sparingly.

Write clear and direct sentences. Using the active voice (‘we performed the experiment...’) typically helps readers better understand concepts and results described in a paper.

State the main finding clearly. A reader should be able to understand what you found and why it matters from the title and abstract.

Ask a colleague outside your immediate field to read the title and abstract.

نوعي:

development rate was fastest in the higher temperature treatment

كمّي:

development rate in the 30°C temperature treatment was ten percent faster than development rate in the 20°C temperature treatment

مجازي:

experimental subjects were assaulted with a wall of sound

محدد:

experimental subjects were presented with 20 second pulses of conspecific mating calls

مثال رسمي ملتبس:

You have higher odds of being injured by a vending machine than a cat.

المعنى 1، كرّر by:

You have higher odds of being injured by a vending machine than by a cat.

المعنى 2، أضف فعلًا للقط:

You have higher odds than a cat does of being injured by a vending machine.

Anthropomorphism occurs when writers attribute human actions to inanimate sources or to nonhuman animals, as demonstrated in the following table.

صحيح:

Rat pairs lived in the same enclosure.

خطأ:

Rat couples lived in the same enclosure.

صحيح:

The theory addresses

خطأ:

The theory concludes

A theory might address, indicate, or present, but researchers (not theories) conclude.

If a construction is in widespread use and its meaning is unambiguous, it is usually not anthropomorphic.

تراكيب مسموحة:

The results suggest

The study found

The data provide evidence that

This paper focuses on

Use first person pronouns to describe your work and your personal reactions (e.g., “I examined,” “I agreed with”), including your work with coauthors (e.g., “We conducted”).

Ensure items in lists are parallel.

غير متواز:

فحصت الدراسة دافعية الطلاب، وكيف أدّوا أكاديميًا، ورضاهم.

متواز:

فحصت الدراسة دافعية الطلاب، والأداء الأكاديمي، والرضا.

he / him غير واضحين:

My cousin Jake hugged my brother Trey, even though he didn’t like him very much.

مُسمّى:

My cousin Jake hugged my brother Trey, even though Jake doesn’t like Trey very much.

النسخة 1 (غامضة):

There are many important river and shore scenes in Huckleberry Finn.

النسخة 2 (وجهة أوضح):

The contrasting river and shore scenes in Huckleberry Finn suggest a return to nature.

النسخة 3 (مصطلحات مفتاحية في الادعاء):

Through its contrasting river and shore scenes, Twain’s Huckleberry Finn suggests that to find the true expression of American democratic ideals, one must leave “civilized” society and go back to nature.

There are two kinds of transitions: (a) transitional words and phrases that are used at the start of a sentence to show how the sentence connects with the previous sentence and (b) transitional sentences that are used at the start of a paragraph to show how the paragraph logically connects with the previous paragraph.

Although transitional words and phrases can be very helpful, they can also be overused.

If you have transitions at the beginning of every (or nearly every) sentence, look for places to remove some.

A “reverse” outline is one you make after you have written a draft.

The reverse outline will help you evaluate the strengths and weaknesses of both your organization and your argument.

• الفاعل والفعل في حدود كلمة أو كلمتين من بعضهما
• الفعل فعل نحوي، لا اسم ينتهي بـ -tion
• المعلومات المألوفة في الصدر؛ الادعاء الجديد في النهاية
• الجملة تروي قصة واحدة (موضع الموضوع) وتشدّد على نقطة جديدة واحدة
• كل اختصار ومصطلح مفتاحي معرّف عند أول استخدام
• استُبدلت كلمة فخمة بكلمة مألوفة حيث بقيت الدقة
• المقارنات تسمّي الطرفين؛ والكميات تحل محل “various” و“higher”
• النظريات لا تستنتج؛ “The study found” مسموح حين يكون المعنى غير ملتبس
• القوائم متوازية؛ وكل they / this / it له اسم واحد
• لا فقرة من جملة واحدة؛ ولا واحدة أطول من صفحة بمسافة مزدوجة
• ما زالت المسودة مفهومة حين تُقرأ بصوت عالٍ