Как писать ясно в академических работах

Подлежащее + глагол сначала:

Кто или что сделал что. Затем ограничение, метод или исключение.

Действие в глаголе:

Не «внедрение X привело к Y», а «X сделал Y».

Знакомое, затем новое:

Старая информация в начале предложения. Находка, число или тезис — в конце.

Термин при первом использовании:

Полное название (СОКР), затем СОКР. Курсив у первого ключевого термина, который вы сразу определяете (APA §6.22).

Вырезайте, не украшайте:

Удалите “the fact that,” “it should be noted that” и “it is interesting that” (UNC Sciences). Оставьте оставшееся придаточное.

Check for continuity in words, concepts, and thematic development across the paper. Explain relationships between ideas clearly. Present ideas in a logical order. Use clear transitions to smoothly connect sentences, paragraphs, and ideas.

Choose words and phrases carefully and deliberately. Eliminate wordiness, redundancy, evasiveness, circumlocution, overuse of the passive voice, and clumsy prose.

Do not use jargon, contractions, or colloquialisms.

Avoid overusing both short, simple sentences and long, involved sentences; instead, use varied sentence lengths.

Avoid both single-sentence paragraphs and paragraphs longer than one double-spaced page.

Use clear and precise language. Use a professional tone and professional language.

Do not use jargon, contractions, colloquialisms, or creative literary devices.

Check for anthropomorphistic language (i.e., attributing human actions to inanimate objects or nonhuman animals).

Make logical comparisons using clear word choice and sentence structure.

We argue here that complexity of thought need not lead to impenetrability of expression.

The fundamental purpose of scientific discourse is not the mere presentation of information and thought, but rather its actual communication.

It does not matter how pleased an author might be to have converted all the right data into sentences and paragraphs; it matters only whether a large majority of the reading audience accurately perceives what the author had in mind.

But the most important goal of academic writing is not to sound smart—it is to communicate an argument or information clearly and convincingly.

Using simple words does not indicate simple thoughts.

In an academic argument paper, what makes the thesis and argument sophisticated are the connections presented in simple, clear language.

First, remember that your goal in academic writing is not to sound intelligent, but to get your intelligent point across.

When given a choice between a familiar and a technical or obscure term, the more familiar term is preferable if it doesn’t reduce precision.

Точно:

population density is positively correlated with disease transmission rate

Менее точно:

population density is positively related to disease transmission rate

Неверно употреблённое слово:

Cree Indians were a monotonous culture until French and British settlers arrived.

Правка:

Cree Indians were a homogenous culture.

Нежелательная коннотация:

I sprayed the ants in their private places.

Правка:

I sprayed the ants in their hiding places.

Жаргон:

The dialectical interface between neo-Platonists and anti-disestablishment Catholics offers an algorithm for deontological thought.

Правка:

The dialogue between neo-Platonists and certain Catholic thinkers is a model for deontological thought.

Нагруженное:

Society teaches young girls that beauty is their most important quality. In order to prevent eating disorders and other health problems, we must change society.

Названное:

Contemporary American popular media, like magazines and movies, teach young girls that beauty is their most important quality. In order to prevent eating disorders and other health problems, we must change the images and role models girls are offered.

Клише:

France bit off more than it could chew in Vietnam, and America’s intervention was too little, too late.

Правка:

As the French faltered in Vietnam, even American intervention could not save the collapsing regime.

Стопка оговорок:

Most people usually think that many puppies are generally pretty cute.

Правка:

Most people think that puppies are cute.

Избыточная пара:

Adrienne fulfilled all our hopes and dreams when she saved the whole entire planet.

Правка:

Adrienne fulfilled all our hopes when she saved the planet.

Уклончиво:

Возможно, можно было бы предположить, что, быть может, между этими переменными есть некая связь.

Уместно осторожно:

Данные указывают на связь между этими переменными.

Readers expect a grammatical subject to be followed immediately by the verb.

Anything of length that intervenes between subject and verb is read as an interruption, and therefore as something of lesser importance.

Make subjects short and concrete, ideally naming the character that performs the action expressed by the verb that follows.

Avoid interrupting the subject and verb with more than a word or two.

Put key actions in verbs, not in nouns.

Put information familiar to readers at the beginning of a sentence, new information at the end.

Avoid long introductory phrases: get to a short, familiar subject quickly.

Опубликованный оригинал:

The smallest of the URF's (URFA6L), a 207-nucleotide (nt) reading frame overlapping out of phase the NH2-terminal portion of the adenosinetriphosphatase (ATPase) subunit 6 gene has been identified as the animal equivalent of the recently discovered yeast H+-ATPase subunit 8 gene.

Пробная правка, если определение 207-nt важно:

The smallest of the URF's is URFA6L, a 207-nucleotide (nt) reading frame overlapping out of phase the NH2-terminal portion of the adenosinetriphosphatase (ATPase) subunit 6 gene; it has been identified as the animal equivalent of the recently discovered yeast H+-ATPase subunit 8 gene.

Пробная правка, если это определение — отступление:

The smallest of the URF's (URFA6L) has been identified as the animal equivalent of the recently discovered yeast H+-ATPase subunit 8 gene.

Абзац, на котором они остановились (начало):

The smallest of the URF's, URFA6L, has been identified as the animal equivalent of the recently discovered yeast H+-ATPase subunit 8 gene; but the functional significance of other URF's has been more elusive.

Сложное:

The osmoregulatory organ, which is located at the base of the third dorsal spine on the outer margin of the terminal papillae and functions by expelling excess sodium ions, activates only under hypertonic conditions.

Яснее:

Located on the outer margin of the terminal papillae at the base of the third dorsal spine, the osmoregulatory organ expels excess sodium ions under hypertonic conditions.

...to confirm the nature of electrical breakdown of nitrogen in uniform fields at relatively high pressures and interelectrode gaps that approach those obtained in engineering practice, prior to the determination of the processes that set the criterion for breakdown in the above-mentioned gases and mixtures in uniform and non-uniform fields of engineering significance.

Многословное:

The reason for the failure of the economic system of the island was the inability of Gilligan in finding adequate resources without incurring expenses at the hands of the headhunters on the other side of the island.

Правка:

Gilligan hurt the economic system of the island because he couldn’t find adequate resources without angering the headhunters.

Неясно:

Having finished with studying, the pizza was quickly eaten.

Ясно:

Having finished with studying, the students quickly ate the pizza.

“Bees disperse pollen” and “Pollen is dispersed by bees” are two different but equally respectable sentences about the same facts. The first tells us something about bees; the second tells us something about pollen.

A sentence is too long when it has more viable candidates for stress positions than there are stress positions available.

Follow a grammatical subject as soon as possible with its verb.

Place in the stress position the “new information” you want the reader to emphasize.

Place the person or thing whose “story” a sentence is telling at the beginning of the sentence, in the topic position.

Place appropriate “old information” (material already stated in the discourse) in the topic position for linkage backward and contextualization forward.

Articulate the action of every clause or sentence in its verb.

In general, provide context for your reader before asking that reader to consider anything new.

In general, try to ensure that the relative emphases of the substance coincide with the relative expectations for emphasis raised by the structure.

Перегружено существительными:

The discovery of the aliens was made by the government.

Глагол сначала:

The government discovered the aliens.

Пустой зачин:

There is a need for further study of aliens.

Правка:

We need to study aliens further.

Слабый глагол:

The aliens have a positive effect on our ecosystem.

Более сильный глагол:

The aliens improve our ecosystem.

Use abbreviations sparingly and usually when they are familiar to readers, save considerable space, and appear at least three times in the paper.

Define abbreviations, including abbreviations for group authors, on first use.

Use italics for the first use of key terms or phrases accompanied by a definition.

Keep technical terms to the places where they are needed. Define abbreviations at first use and use them sparingly.

Write clear and direct sentences. Using the active voice (‘we performed the experiment...’) typically helps readers better understand concepts and results described in a paper.

State the main finding clearly. A reader should be able to understand what you found and why it matters from the title and abstract.

Ask a colleague outside your immediate field to read the title and abstract.

Качественное:

development rate was fastest in the higher temperature treatment

Количественное:

development rate in the 30°C temperature treatment was ten percent faster than development rate in the 20°C temperature treatment

Образное:

experimental subjects were assaulted with a wall of sound

Уточнённое:

experimental subjects were presented with 20 second pulses of conspecific mating calls

Неполное:

Участники группы воздействия набрали более высокие баллы.

Полное:

Участники группы воздействия набрали более высокие баллы, чем участники контрольной группы.

Исследование как деятель:

Исследование собрало 40 интервью и заключило, что время ожидания предсказывало неявки.

Исследователи как деятели:

Мы собрали 40 интервью. Время ожидания предсказывало неявки.

Use first person pronouns to describe your work and your personal reactions (e.g., “I examined,” “I agreed with”), including your work with coauthors (e.g., “We conducted”).

Ensure items in lists are parallel.

Непараллельно:

Исследование изучало мотивацию студентов, как они успевали академически, и их удовлетворённость.

Параллельно:

Исследование изучало мотивацию студентов, академическую успеваемость и удовлетворённость.

Неясные he / him:

My cousin Jake hugged my brother Trey, even though he didn’t like him very much.

Названные:

My cousin Jake hugged my brother Trey, even though Jake doesn’t like Trey very much.

Версия 1 (расплывчатая):

There are many important river and shore scenes in Huckleberry Finn.

Версия 2 (яснее направление):

The contrasting river and shore scenes in Huckleberry Finn suggest a return to nature.

Версия 3 (ключевые термины в утверждении):

Through its contrasting river and shore scenes, Twain’s Huckleberry Finn suggests that to find the true expression of American democratic ideals, one must leave “civilized” society and go back to nature.

A “reverse” outline is one you make after you have written a draft.

The reverse outline will help you evaluate the strengths and weaknesses of both your organization and your argument.

• Подлежащее и глагол стоят в одном-двух словах друг от друга
• Действие — глагол, а не существительное на -tion
• Знакомая информация в начале; новый тезис — в конце
• Предложение рассказывает одну историю (позиция темы) и акцентирует один новый пункт
• Каждое сокращение и каждый ключевой термин определены при первом использовании
• Знакомое слово заменило изысканное везде, где точность сохранилась
• Сравнения называют обе стороны; количества заменяют «различные» и «выше»
• Исследования и теории не собирают, не заключают и не верят
• Списки параллельны; у каждого they / this / it одно существительное
• Ни один абзац не состоит из одного предложения; ни один не длиннее страницы через два интервала
• Черновик всё ещё имеет смысл, когда его читают вслух