学術論文を明確に書く方法

主語＋動詞を先に:

誰が、または何が、何をしたか。そのあと制限、方法、例外。

行為を動詞に:

「the implementation of X resulted in Y」ではなく「X did Y」。

既知のあと新規:

文頭に古い情報。知見、数値、主張は文末。

初出で用語:

正式名称（ABBR）、その後はABBR。直後に定義する最初の重要用語はイタリック（APA §6.22）。

飾らず削る:

「the fact that」「it should be noted that」「it is interesting that」を削除する（UNC Sciences）。残った節を残す。

Check for continuity in words, concepts, and thematic development across the paper. Explain relationships between ideas clearly. Present ideas in a logical order. Use clear transitions to smoothly connect sentences, paragraphs, and ideas.

Choose words and phrases carefully and deliberately. Eliminate wordiness, redundancy, evasiveness, circumlocution, overuse of the passive voice, and clumsy prose.

Do not use jargon, contractions, or colloquialisms.

Avoid overusing both short, simple sentences and long, involved sentences; instead, use varied sentence lengths.

Avoid both single-sentence paragraphs and paragraphs longer than one double-spaced page.

Use clear and precise language. Use a professional tone and professional language.

Do not use jargon, contractions, colloquialisms, or creative literary devices.

Check for anthropomorphistic language (i.e., attributing human actions to inanimate objects or nonhuman animals).

Make logical comparisons using clear word choice and sentence structure.

We argue here that complexity of thought need not lead to impenetrability of expression.

The fundamental purpose of scientific discourse is not the mere presentation of information and thought, but rather its actual communication.

It does not matter how pleased an author might be to have converted all the right data into sentences and paragraphs; it matters only whether a large majority of the reading audience accurately perceives what the author had in mind.

But the most important goal of academic writing is not to sound smart—it is to communicate an argument or information clearly and convincingly.

Using simple words does not indicate simple thoughts.

In an academic argument paper, what makes the thesis and argument sophisticated are the connections presented in simple, clear language.

First, remember that your goal in academic writing is not to sound intelligent, but to get your intelligent point across.

When given a choice between a familiar and a technical or obscure term, the more familiar term is preferable if it doesn’t reduce precision.

精確:

population density is positively correlated with disease transmission rate

精度が低い:

population density is positively related to disease transmission rate

誤用:

Cree Indians were a monotonous culture until French and British settlers arrived.

改稿:

Cree Indians were a homogenous culture.

望まない含意:

I sprayed the ants in their private places.

改稿:

I sprayed the ants in their hiding places.

隠語:

The dialectical interface between neo-Platonists and anti-disestablishment Catholics offers an algorithm for deontological thought.

改稿:

The dialogue between neo-Platonists and certain Catholic thinkers is a model for deontological thought.

荷電:

Society teaches young girls that beauty is their most important quality. In order to prevent eating disorders and other health problems, we must change society.

名指し:

Contemporary American popular media, like magazines and movies, teach young girls that beauty is their most important quality. In order to prevent eating disorders and other health problems, we must change the images and role models girls are offered.

決まり文句:

France bit off more than it could chew in Vietnam, and America’s intervention was too little, too late.

改稿:

As the French faltered in Vietnam, even American intervention could not save the collapsing regime.

限定語の積み重ね:

Most people usually think that many puppies are generally pretty cute.

改稿:

Most people think that puppies are cute.

重複する対:

Adrienne fulfilled all our hopes and dreams when she saved the whole entire planet.

改稿:

Adrienne fulfilled all our hopes when she saved the planet.

回避的:

これらの変数のあいだに、おそらく何らかの関係があるかもしれないと示唆できる可能性がある。

適切に慎重:

データは、これらの変数のあいだに関係があることを示唆する。

Readers expect a grammatical subject to be followed immediately by the verb.

Anything of length that intervenes between subject and verb is read as an interruption, and therefore as something of lesser importance.

Make subjects short and concrete, ideally naming the character that performs the action expressed by the verb that follows.

Avoid interrupting the subject and verb with more than a word or two.

Put key actions in verbs, not in nouns.

Put information familiar to readers at the beginning of a sentence, new information at the end.

Avoid long introductory phrases: get to a short, familiar subject quickly.

公表された原文:

The smallest of the URF's (URFA6L), a 207-nucleotide (nt) reading frame overlapping out of phase the NH2-terminal portion of the adenosinetriphosphatase (ATPase) subunit 6 gene has been identified as the animal equivalent of the recently discovered yeast H+-ATPase subunit 8 gene.

207-ntの定義が重要なら試行改稿:

The smallest of the URF's is URFA6L, a 207-nucleotide (nt) reading frame overlapping out of phase the NH2-terminal portion of the adenosinetriphosphatase (ATPase) subunit 6 gene; it has been identified as the animal equivalent of the recently discovered yeast H+-ATPase subunit 8 gene.

その定義が余談なら試行改稿:

The smallest of the URF's (URFA6L) has been identified as the animal equivalent of the recently discovered yeast H+-ATPase subunit 8 gene.

彼らが落ち着いた段落（冒頭）:

The smallest of the URF's, URFA6L, has been identified as the animal equivalent of the recently discovered yeast H+-ATPase subunit 8 gene; but the functional significance of other URF's has been more elusive.

複雑:

The osmoregulatory organ, which is located at the base of the third dorsal spine on the outer margin of the terminal papillae and functions by expelling excess sodium ions, activates only under hypertonic conditions.

より明確:

Located on the outer margin of the terminal papillae at the base of the third dorsal spine, the osmoregulatory organ expels excess sodium ions under hypertonic conditions.

...to confirm the nature of electrical breakdown of nitrogen in uniform fields at relatively high pressures and interelectrode gaps that approach those obtained in engineering practice, prior to the determination of the processes that set the criterion for breakdown in the above-mentioned gases and mixtures in uniform and non-uniform fields of engineering significance.

冗長:

The reason for the failure of the economic system of the island was the inability of Gilligan in finding adequate resources without incurring expenses at the hands of the headhunters on the other side of the island.

改稿:

Gilligan hurt the economic system of the island because he couldn’t find adequate resources without angering the headhunters.

不明確:

Having finished with studying, the pizza was quickly eaten.

明確:

Having finished with studying, the students quickly ate the pizza.

“Bees disperse pollen” and “Pollen is dispersed by bees” are two different but equally respectable sentences about the same facts. The first tells us something about bees; the second tells us something about pollen.

A sentence is too long when it has more viable candidates for stress positions than there are stress positions available.

Follow a grammatical subject as soon as possible with its verb.

Place in the stress position the “new information” you want the reader to emphasize.

Place the person or thing whose “story” a sentence is telling at the beginning of the sentence, in the topic position.

Place appropriate “old information” (material already stated in the discourse) in the topic position for linkage backward and contextualization forward.

Articulate the action of every clause or sentence in its verb.

In general, provide context for your reader before asking that reader to consider anything new.

In general, try to ensure that the relative emphases of the substance coincide with the relative expectations for emphasis raised by the structure.

名詞が重い:

The discovery of the aliens was made by the government.

動詞を先に:

The government discovered the aliens.

空の書き出し:

There is a need for further study of aliens.

改稿:

We need to study aliens further.

弱い動詞:

The aliens have a positive effect on our ecosystem.

強い動詞:

The aliens improve our ecosystem.

Use abbreviations sparingly and usually when they are familiar to readers, save considerable space, and appear at least three times in the paper.

Define abbreviations, including abbreviations for group authors, on first use.

Use italics for the first use of key terms or phrases accompanied by a definition.

Keep technical terms to the places where they are needed. Define abbreviations at first use and use them sparingly.

Write clear and direct sentences. Using the active voice (‘we performed the experiment...’) typically helps readers better understand concepts and results described in a paper.

State the main finding clearly. A reader should be able to understand what you found and why it matters from the title and abstract.

Ask a colleague outside your immediate field to read the title and abstract.

質的:

development rate was fastest in the higher temperature treatment

量的:

development rate in the 30°C temperature treatment was ten percent faster than development rate in the 20°C temperature treatment

比喩的:

experimental subjects were assaulted with a wall of sound

特定:

experimental subjects were presented with 20 second pulses of conspecific mating calls

不完全:

介入群の参加者の得点はより高かった。

完全:

介入群の参加者の得点は、対照群の参加者より高かった。

研究が行為者:

この研究は40件のインタビューを収集し、待ち時間が欠席を予測すると結論した。

研究者が行為者:

私たちは40件のインタビューを収集した。待ち時間が欠席を予測した。

Use first person pronouns to describe your work and your personal reactions (e.g., “I examined,” “I agreed with”), including your work with coauthors (e.g., “We conducted”).

Ensure items in lists are parallel.

並列でない:

この研究は、学生の動機づけ、彼らが学業でどう成果を出したか、および彼らの満足を検討した。

並列:

この研究は、学生の動機づけ、学業成績、および満足を検討した。

不明確なhe / him:

My cousin Jake hugged my brother Trey, even though he didn’t like him very much.

名指し:

My cousin Jake hugged my brother Trey, even though Jake doesn’t like Trey very much.

第1版（曖昧）:

There are many important river and shore scenes in Huckleberry Finn.

第2版（行き先がより明確）:

The contrasting river and shore scenes in Huckleberry Finn suggest a return to nature.

第3版（主張に重要用語）:

Through its contrasting river and shore scenes, Twain’s Huckleberry Finn suggests that to find the true expression of American democratic ideals, one must leave “civilized” society and go back to nature.

A “reverse” outline is one you make after you have written a draft.

The reverse outline will help you evaluate the strengths and weaknesses of both your organization and your argument.

• 主語と動詞が一語か二語以内にある
• 行為は動詞であり、-tionで終わる名詞ではない
• 既知の情報は文頭、新しい主張は文末
• 文は一つの話（トピック位置）をし、一つの新しい点を強調する
• すべての略語と重要用語が初出で定義されている
• 精度が残るところでは、凝った語を日常語に置き換えた
• 比較は両方を名指しし、数量が「various」と「higher」に代わる
• 研究と理論は、収集も結論も信じもしない
• リストは並列。すべてのthey / this / itは名詞一つを指す
• 段落は一文ではなく、ダブルスペース1ページより長くない
• 音読しても草稿は通じる