Parafraseren vs. citeren: wanneer je wat gebruikt

Citeer wanneer:

• De bewoording het bewijs is (een wet, een definitie, een gemunte term, een versregel).
• Je diction, toon of retorica gaat analyseren.
• Een korte, beroemde zin haar kracht zou verliezen als ze herschreven werd.

Parafraseer wanneer:

• Je de bevinding, methode of het argument nodig hebt, niet de formulering van de schrijver.
• Je de zin zo kunt herbouwen dat zowel de woorden als de syntaxis van jou zijn.
• Je het punt helderder kunt uitleggen dan de oorspronkelijke zin doet.

Vat samen wanneer:

• Je de hoofdgedachte van een lang fragment nodig hebt, niet de steunende details.
• Je verschillende bronnen tot één bewering synthetiseert.

Altijd:

Vermeld zowel de parafrase als het citaat. Nieuwe woorden dragen het eigendom van de idee niet over.

It is best to paraphrase sources rather than directly quoting them because paraphrasing allows you to fit material to the context of your paper and writing style.

Use direct quotations rather than paraphrasing: when reproducing an exact definition (see Section 6.22 of the Publication Manual), when an author has said something memorably or succinctly, or when you want to respond to exact wording (e.g., something someone said).

Ethics, copyright laws, and courtesy to readers require authors to identify the sources of direct quotations or paraphrases and of any facts or opinions not generally known or easily checked.

Paraphrasing allows you to maintain your voice while demonstrating that you understand the source because you can restate its points in your own words and with your own sentence structure.

Quotations:

Used to emphasize distinctive opinion, tone, style; to analyze rhetorical and literary devices; to provide a basis for disagreement

Paraphrases:

Used to emphasize facts rather than opinion, tone, or style

Summaries:

Used to emphasize main ideas rather than supporting details of a source or to provide accepted background information

to show that an authority supports your point

to present a position or argument to critique or comment on

to include especially moving or historically significant language

to present a particularly well-stated passage whose meaning would be lost or changed if paraphrased or summarized

Congress shall make no law respecting an establishment of religion, or prohibiting the free exercise thereof; or abridging the freedom of speech, or of the press; or the right of the people peaceably to assemble, and to petition the Government for a redress of grievances.

APA in de tekst:

The First Amendment opens by stating that "Congress shall make no law respecting an establishment of religion" (U.S. Const. amend. I).

Passage in de bron:

Everyone uses the word language and everybody these days talks about culture. . . . “Languaculture” is a reminder, I hope, of the necessary connection between its two parts. . . .

Onjuist (term gestolen, geen bronvermelding):

At the intersection of language and culture lies a concept that has been called “languaculture.”

Juist:

At the intersection of language and culture lies a concept that Michael Agar calls “languaculture” (60).

Work cited:

Agar, Michael. Language Shock: Understanding the Culture of Conversation. HarperCollins Publishers, 2016.

Injustice anywhere is a threat to justice everywhere. We are caught in an inescapable network of mutuality, tied in a single garment of destiny.

Zwakke parafrase (accuraat, tandeloos):

King stelde dat onrecht in de ene stad gerechtigheid in andere in gevaar brengt omdat gemeenschappen verbonden zijn.

Beter gebruik van het citaat:

King wijst het verwijt van "outside agitator" af door de afstand tussen steden in te klappen: "Injustice anywhere is a threat to justice everywhere."

And so, my fellow Americans: ask not what your country can do for you—ask what you can do for your country.

Parafrase (verliest de wending):

Kennedy vroeg Amerikanen na te denken over nationale dienst in plaats van persoonlijke voordelen (Kennedy, 1961).

Juliet tests the difference between a person and a label: "What’s in a name? That which we call a rose / By any other word would smell as sweet" (2.2.46–47).

Slavery is terrible for men; but it is far more terrible for women. Superadded to the burden common to all, they have wrongs, and sufferings, and mortifications peculiarly their own.

Geïntegreerde zin van UNC:

Harriet Jacobs, a former slave from North Carolina, published an autobiographical slave narrative in 1861. She exposed the hardships of both male and female slaves but ultimately concluded that “slavery is terrible for men; but it is far more terrible for women.”

Paraphrasing allows you to summarize and synthesize information from one or more sources, focus on significant information, and compare and contrast relevant details.

Published authors paraphrase their sources most of the time, rather than directly quoting the sources; student authors should emulate this practice by paraphrasing more than directly quoting.

Webster-Stratton (2016) described a case example of a 4-year-old girl who showed an insecure attachment to her mother; in working with the family dyad, the therapist focused on increasing the mother’s empathy for her child (pp. 152–153).

Passage in de bron:

American Exceptionalism as our founders conceived it was defined by what America was, at home. Foreign policy existed to defend, not define, what America was.

Onaanvaardbaar (hetzelfde skelet):

American exceptionalism as the founding fathers envisioned the concept was given meaning by America as a homeland. Programs focused on other countries were there to protect America, not delineate it.

Aanvaardbaar:

As conceived, American exceptionalism was based on the country’s domestic identity, which foreign policy did not shape but merely guarded.

In je proza, met erkenning:

As Walter A. McDougall argues, for the founding fathers American exceptionalism was based on the country’s domestic identity, which foreign policy did not shape but merely guarded (37).

Work cited:

McDougall, Walter A. Promised Land, Crusader State: The American Encounter with the World since 1776. Houghton Mifflin, 1997.

Passage in de bron:

Love and Toil maintains that family survival was the mother’s main charge among the large majority of London’s population who were poor or working class; the emotional and intellectual nurture of her child or children and even their actual comfort were forced into the background. To mother was to work for and organize household subsistence. (p. 9)

Afgewerkte parafrase van UW:

According to Ross (1993), poor children at the turn of the century received little mothering in our sense of the term. Mothering was defined by economic status, and among the poor, a mother’s foremost responsibility was not to stimulate her children’s minds or foster their emotional growth but to provide food and shelter to meet the basic requirements for physical survival. Given the magnitude of this task, children were deprived of even the “actual comfort” (p. 9) we expect mothers to provide today.

Signaal / bewering / verbinding van UW:

Ross (1993), in her study of poor and working-class mothers in London from 1870-1918 [signal], makes it clear that economic status to a large extent determined the meaning of motherhood [assertion]. Among this population [connection], “To mother was to work for and organize household subsistence” (p. 9).

Critical care nurses function in a hierarchy of roles. In this open heart surgery unit, the nurse manager hires and fires the nursing personnel. The nurse manager does not directly care for patients but follows the progress of unusual or long-term patients. On each shift a nurse assumes the role of resource nurse.

The nurse manager, nurse clinician, and clinical nurse specialist are the designated experts. They do not take patient assignments. The resource nurse is seen as both a caregiver and a resource to other caregivers. . . . Staff nurses have a hierarchy of seniority. . . . Staff nurses are assigned to patients to provide all their nursing care. (Chase, 1995, p. 156)

Critical care nurses have a hierarchy of roles. The nurse manager hires and fires nurses. S/he does not directly care for patients but does follow unusual or long-term cases. On each shift a resource nurse attends to the functioning of the unit as a whole, such as making sure beds are available in the operating room, and also has a patient assignment.

Chase (1995) describes how nurses in a critical care unit function in a hierarchy that places designated experts at the top and the least senior staff nurses at the bottom. The experts — the nurse manager, nurse clinician, and clinical nurse specialist — are not involved directly in patient care. The staff nurses, in contrast, are assigned to patients and provide all their nursing care. Within the staff nurses is a hierarchy of seniority in which the most senior can become resource nurses: they are assigned a patient but also serve as a resource to other caregivers. The experts have administrative and teaching tasks such as selecting and orienting new staff, developing unit policies, and giving hands-on support where needed.

In her study of the roles of nurses in a critical care unit, Chase (1995) also found a hierarchy that distinguished the roles of experts and others. Just as the educational experts described above do not directly teach students, the experts in this unit do not directly attend to patients. That is the role of the staff nurses, who, like teachers, have their own “hierarchy of seniority” (p. 156). The roles of the experts include employing unit nurses and overseeing the care of special patients (nurse manager), teaching and otherwise integrating new personnel into the unit (clinical nurse specialist and nurse clinician), and policy-making (nurse clinician). In an intermediate position in the hierarchy is the resource nurse, a staff nurse with more experience than the others, who assumes direct care of patients as the other staff nurses do, but also takes on tasks to ensure the smooth operation of the entire facility.

Conventional designations: e.g., physician’s assistant, chronic low-back pain

Preferred bias-free language: e.g., persons with disabilities

Technical terms and phrases of a discipline or genre: e.g., reduplication, cognitive domain, material culture, sexual harassment

In deciding whether to run in or set off a quotation, length is usually the deciding factor. In general, a short quotation, especially one that is not a full sentence, should be run in. A hundred words or more can generally be set off as a block quotation.

Effective teams can be difficult to describe because “high performance along one domain does not translate to high performance along another” (Ervin et al., 2018, p. 470).

Narratief sjabloon:

Name (2020) argues that "quoted words" (p. 12).

Parenthetisch sjabloon:

The study reports that "quoted words" (Name, 2020, p. 12).

Researchers have studied how people talk to themselves:

Inner speech is a paradoxical phenomenon. It is an experience that is central to many people’s everyday lives, and yet it presents considerable challenges to any effort to study it scientifically. Nevertheless, a wide range of methodologies and approaches have combined to shed light on the subjective experience of inner speech and its cognitive and neural underpinnings. (Alderson-Day & Fernyhough, 2015, p. 957)

Flores et al. (2018) described how they addressed potential researcher bias when working with an intersectional community of transgender people of color:

Everyone on the research team belonged to a stigmatized group but also held privileged identities. Throughout the research process, we attended to the ways in which our privileged and oppressed identities may have influenced the research process, findings, and presentation of results. (p. 311)

Yes. In fact, it can be more important to cite page numbers when you paraphrase or summarize than when you quote, especially if the source of the info is longer than a few pages. Words reproduced in a verbatim quotation will almost always be easier to locate in the original than words and ideas approximated by paraphrase or summary.

A paraphrase may continue for several sentences. In such cases, cite the work being paraphrased on first mention. Once the work has been cited, it is not necessary to repeat the citation as long as the context of the writing makes it clear that the same work continues to be paraphrased.

If the paraphrase continues into a new paragraph, reintroduce the citation. If the paraphrase incorporates multiple sources or switches among sources, repeat the citation so the source is clear.

Velez et al. (2018) found that for women of color, sexism and racism in the workplace were associated with poor work and mental health outcomes, including job-related burnout, turnover intentions, and psychological distress. However, self-esteem, person–organization fit, and perceived organizational support mediated these effects. Additionally, stronger womanist attitudes—which acknowledge the unique challenges faced by women of color in a sexist and racist society—weakened the association of workplace discrimination with psychological distress. These findings underscore the importance of considering multiple forms of workplace discrimination in clinical practice and research with women of color, along with efforts to challenge and reduce such discrimination.

Play therapists can experience many symptoms of impaired wellness, including emotional exhaustion or reduced ability to empathize with others (Elwood et al., 2011; Figley, 2002), disruption in personal relationships (Elwood et al., 2011; Robinson-Keilig, 2014), decreased satisfaction with work (Elwood et al., 2011), avoidance of particular situations (Figley, 2002; O’Halloran & Linton, 2000), and feelings or thoughts of helplessness (Elwood et al., 2011; Figley, 2002; O’Halloran & Linton, 2000).

Vierkante haken voegen een woord toe of wijzigen het: "The[se] findings apply only to the second cohort."

Een beletselteken laat materiaal uit het midden weg: "We are caught in an inescapable network of mutuality . . . Whatever affects one directly, affects all indirectly."

[sic] markeert een fout die je niet corrigeert: houd de oorspronkelijke spelling, daarna [sic].

Context:

When Franklin Roosevelt gave his inaugural speech on March 4, 1933, he addressed a nation weakened and demoralized by economic depression.

Citaat + bronvermelding:

Roosevelt declared, “The only thing we have to fear is fear itself” (Roosevelt, Public Papers, 11).

Analyse:

With that message of hope and confidence, the new president set the stage for his next one-hundred days in office and helped restore the faith of the American people in their government.

Onbeholpen:

Hamlet denies Rosencrantz’s claim that thwarted ambition caused his depression. “I could be bounded in a nutshell and count myself a king of infinite space” (Hamlet 2.2).

Geïntegreerd:

Hamlet denies Rosencrantz’s claim that thwarted ambition caused his depression: “I could be bounded in a nutshell and count myself a king of infinite space” (Hamlet 2.2).

De regel die mensen herhalen:

This would be the best of all possible worlds if there were no religion in it.

De zin erna:

Twenty times, in the course of my late reading, have I been on the point of breaking out, ‘this would be the best of all possible worlds, if there were no religion in it!!!!’ But in this exclamation, I should have been as fanatical as Bryant or Cleverly. Without religion, this world would be something not fit to be mentioned in public company—I mean hell.

Officieel APA 7-patroon (Rabbitt via Lyon):

(Rabbitt, 1982, as cited in Lyon et al., 2014)

APA 7, jaar van het origineel onbekend:

Allport’s diary (as cited in Nicholson, 2003)

MLA 9:

Agar calls the link "languaculture" (qtd. in Later Writer 10).

If you translate a passage from one language into another language on your own in your paper, your translation is considered a paraphrase, not a direct quotation.

Oorspronkelijk Frans:

“Ainsi, les problèmes de sommeil retentissent sur le fonctionnement diurne des patients en perturbant leurs capacités d’apprentissage et de régulation émotionnelle” (Schröder et al., 2022, p. 301).

Officiële geparafraseerde vertaling:

Schröder et al. (2022) noted that sleep problems affect autistic patients’ daytime functioning by disrupting their learning and emotional regulation abilities (p. 301).