言い換えと直接引用:どちらをいつ使うか

直接引用するとき:

• 文言そのものが証拠である(法令、定義、造語、詩行)。
• 語法、口調、修辞を分析する。
• 短く有名な一文を書き換えると力が失われる。

言い換えるとき:

• 必要なのは所見、方法、論旨であり、書き手の言い回しではない。
• 語も構文も自分のものになるよう文を組み直せる。
• 元の文よりはっきりとその論点を説明できる。

要約するとき:

• 長い一節の主旨が必要で、裏付けの細部は不要である。
• 複数の出典を一つの主張に総合している。

常に:

言い換えも直接引用も出典表示する。新しい語は考えの所有権を移さない。

It is best to paraphrase sources rather than directly quoting them because paraphrasing allows you to fit material to the context of your paper and writing style.

Use direct quotations rather than paraphrasing: when reproducing an exact definition (see Section 6.22 of the Publication Manual), when an author has said something memorably or succinctly, or when you want to respond to exact wording (e.g., something someone said).

Paraphrasing allows you to maintain your voice while demonstrating that you understand the source because you can restate its points in your own words and with your own sentence structure.

Congress shall make no law respecting an establishment of religion, or prohibiting the free exercise thereof; or abridging the freedom of speech, or of the press; or the right of the people peaceably to assemble, and to petition the Government for a redress of grievances.

APA本文中:

The First Amendment opens by stating that "Congress shall make no law respecting an establishment of religion" (U.S. Const. amend. I).

出典中の一節:

Everyone uses the word language and everybody these days talks about culture. . . . “Languaculture” is a reminder, I hope, of the necessary connection between its two parts. . . .

誤り(用語を盗用し、出典なし):

At the intersection of language and culture lies a concept that has been called “languaculture.”

正しい:

At the intersection of language and culture lies a concept that Michael Agar calls “languaculture” (60).

引用文献:

Agar, Michael. Language Shock: Understanding the Culture of Conversation. HarperCollins Publishers, 2016.

Injustice anywhere is a threat to justice everywhere. We are caught in an inescapable network of mutuality, tied in a single garment of destiny.

弱い言い換え(正確だが歯がない):

Kingは、共同体はつながっているので、一都市の不正は他都市の正義を危うくすると論じた。

引用のよりよい使い方:

Kingは都市間の距離を崩すことで"outside agitator"の非難を拒む。"Injustice anywhere is a threat to justice everywhere."

And so, my fellow Americans: ask not what your country can do for you—ask what you can do for your country.

言い換え(転回が失われる):

Kennedyはアメリカ人に、個人の利益ではなく国家への奉仕を考えるよう求めた (Kennedy, 1961)。

Juliet tests the difference between a person and a label: "What’s in a name? That which we call a rose / By any other word would smell as sweet" (2.2.46–47).

Slavery is terrible for men; but it is far more terrible for women. Superadded to the burden common to all, they have wrongs, and sufferings, and mortifications peculiarly their own.

UNCの組み込み文:

Harriet Jacobs, a former slave from North Carolina, published an autobiographical slave narrative in 1861. She exposed the hardships of both male and female slaves but ultimately concluded that “slavery is terrible for men; but it is far more terrible for women.”

Paraphrasing allows you to summarize and synthesize information from one or more sources, focus on significant information, and compare and contrast relevant details.

Published authors paraphrase their sources most of the time, rather than directly quoting the sources; student authors should emulate this practice by paraphrasing more than directly quoting.

Webster-Stratton (2016) described a case example of a 4-year-old girl who showed an insecure attachment to her mother; in working with the family dyad, the therapist focused on increasing the mother’s empathy for her child (pp. 152–153).

出典中の一節:

American Exceptionalism as our founders conceived it was defined by what America was, at home. Foreign policy existed to defend, not define, what America was.

不可(同じ骨格):

American exceptionalism as the founding fathers envisioned the concept was given meaning by America as a homeland. Programs focused on other countries were there to protect America, not delineate it.

可:

As conceived, American exceptionalism was based on the country’s domestic identity, which foreign policy did not shape but merely guarded.

本文中で、クレジット付き:

As Walter A. McDougall argues, for the founding fathers American exceptionalism was based on the country’s domestic identity, which foreign policy did not shape but merely guarded (37).

引用文献:

McDougall, Walter A. Promised Land, Crusader State: The American Encounter with the World since 1776. Houghton Mifflin, 1997.

出典中の一節:

Love and Toil maintains that family survival was the mother’s main charge among the large majority of London’s population who were poor or working class; the emotional and intellectual nurture of her child or children and even their actual comfort were forced into the background. To mother was to work for and organize household subsistence. (p. 9)

UWの完成した言い換え:

According to Ross (1993), poor children at the turn of the century received little mothering in our sense of the term. Mothering was defined by economic status, and among the poor, a mother’s foremost responsibility was not to stimulate her children’s minds or foster their emotional growth but to provide food and shelter to meet the basic requirements for physical survival. Given the magnitude of this task, children were deprived of even the “actual comfort” (p. 9) we expect mothers to provide today.

Critical care nurses function in a hierarchy of roles. In this open heart surgery unit, the nurse manager hires and fires the nursing personnel. The nurse manager does not directly care for patients but follows the progress of unusual or long-term patients. On each shift a nurse assumes the role of resource nurse.

The nurse manager, nurse clinician, and clinical nurse specialist are the designated experts. They do not take patient assignments. The resource nurse is seen as both a caregiver and a resource to other caregivers. . . . Staff nurses have a hierarchy of seniority. . . . Staff nurses are assigned to patients to provide all their nursing care. (Chase, 1995, p. 156)

Critical care nurses have a hierarchy of roles. The nurse manager hires and fires nurses. S/he does not directly care for patients but does follow unusual or long-term cases. On each shift a resource nurse attends to the functioning of the unit as a whole, such as making sure beds are available in the operating room, and also has a patient assignment.

Chase (1995) describes how nurses in a critical care unit function in a hierarchy that places designated experts at the top and the least senior staff nurses at the bottom. The experts — the nurse manager, nurse clinician, and clinical nurse specialist — are not involved directly in patient care. The staff nurses, in contrast, are assigned to patients and provide all their nursing care. Within the staff nurses is a hierarchy of seniority in which the most senior can become resource nurses: they are assigned a patient but also serve as a resource to other caregivers. The experts have administrative and teaching tasks such as selecting and orienting new staff, developing unit policies, and giving hands-on support where needed.

In her study of the roles of nurses in a critical care unit, Chase (1995) also found a hierarchy that distinguished the roles of experts and others. Just as the educational experts described above do not directly teach students, the experts in this unit do not directly attend to patients. That is the role of the staff nurses, who, like teachers, have their own “hierarchy of seniority” (p. 156). The roles of the experts include employing unit nurses and overseeing the care of special patients (nurse manager), teaching and otherwise integrating new personnel into the unit (clinical nurse specialist and nurse clinician), and policy-making (nurse clinician). In an intermediate position in the hierarchy is the resource nurse, a staff nurse with more experience than the others, who assumes direct care of patients as the other staff nurses do, but also takes on tasks to ensure the smooth operation of the entire facility.

Conventional designations: e.g., physician’s assistant, chronic low-back pain

Preferred bias-free language: e.g., persons with disabilities

Technical terms and phrases of a discipline or genre: e.g., reduplication, cognitive domain, material culture, sexual harassment

Effective teams can be difficult to describe because “high performance along one domain does not translate to high performance along another” (Ervin et al., 2018, p. 470).

物語型:

Name (2020) は「quoted words」と論じる (p. 12)。

括弧型:

その研究は「quoted words」と報告する (Name, 2020, p. 12)。

Researchers have studied how people talk to themselves:

Inner speech is a paradoxical phenomenon. It is an experience that is central to many people’s everyday lives, and yet it presents considerable challenges to any effort to study it scientifically. Nevertheless, a wide range of methodologies and approaches have combined to shed light on the subjective experience of inner speech and its cognitive and neural underpinnings. (Alderson-Day & Fernyhough, 2015, p. 957)

A paraphrase may continue for several sentences. In such cases, cite the work being paraphrased on first mention. Once the work has been cited, it is not necessary to repeat the citation as long as the context of the writing makes it clear that the same work continues to be paraphrased.

If the paraphrase continues into a new paragraph, reintroduce the citation. If the paraphrase incorporates multiple sources or switches among sources, repeat the citation so the source is clear.

Velez et al. (2018) found that for women of color, sexism and racism in the workplace were associated with poor work and mental health outcomes, including job-related burnout, turnover intentions, and psychological distress. However, self-esteem, person–organization fit, and perceived organizational support mediated these effects. Additionally, stronger womanist attitudes—which acknowledge the unique challenges faced by women of color in a sexist and racist society—weakened the association of workplace discrimination with psychological distress. These findings underscore the importance of considering multiple forms of workplace discrimination in clinical practice and research with women of color, along with efforts to challenge and reduce such discrimination.

角括弧は語を足すか変える: "The[se] findings apply only to the second cohort."

三点リーダーは途中の材料を落とす: "We are caught in an inescapable network of mutuality . . . Whatever affects one directly, affects all indirectly."

[sic]は訂正しない誤りを示す: 元の綴りを残し、そのあと[sic]。

文脈:

When Franklin Roosevelt gave his inaugural speech on March 4, 1933, he addressed a nation weakened and demoralized by economic depression.

引用 + 出典:

Roosevelt declared, “The only thing we have to fear is fear itself” (Roosevelt, Public Papers, 11).

分析:

With that message of hope and confidence, the new president set the stage for his next one-hundred days in office and helped restore the faith of the American people in their government.

ぎこちない:

Hamlet denies Rosencrantz’s claim that thwarted ambition caused his depression. “I could be bounded in a nutshell and count myself a king of infinite space” (Hamlet 2.2).

組み込み:

Hamlet denies Rosencrantz’s claim that thwarted ambition caused his depression: “I could be bounded in a nutshell and count myself a king of infinite space” (Hamlet 2.2).

人々が繰り返す行:

This would be the best of all possible worlds if there were no religion in it.

そのあとの文:

Twenty times, in the course of my late reading, have I been on the point of breaking out, ‘this would be the best of all possible worlds, if there were no religion in it!!!!’ But in this exclamation, I should have been as fanatical as Bryant or Cleverly. Without religion, this world would be something not fit to be mentioned in public company—I mean hell.

APA 7公式の型 (Rabbitt via Lyon):

(Rabbitt, 1982, as cited in Lyon et al., 2014)

APA 7、原典の年が不明:

Allport’s diary (as cited in Nicholson, 2003)

MLA 9:

Agar calls the link "languaculture" (qtd. in Later Writer 10).

If you translate a passage from one language into another on your own in your paper, your translation is considered a paraphrase, not a direct quotation.

Ethics, copyright laws, and courtesy to readers require authors to identify the sources of direct quotations or paraphrases and of any facts or opinions not generally known or easily checked.