剽窃の避け方: APA、MLA、Harvard、Princetonの公式規則

直接引用 (MLA 9 §4.11、Agar)

At the intersection of language and culture lies a concept that Michael Agar calls “languaculture” (60).

言い換え (MLA 9 §4.8、McDougall)

As Walter A. McDougall argues, for the founding fathers American exceptionalism was based on the country’s domestic identity, which foreign policy did not shape but merely guarded (37).

一般的知識

教育を受けた読者がすでに知っている事実は出典なしでよい(水はH2O、第二次世界大戦は1945年に終わった)。主張が誰かの知見、統計、解釈になった瞬間に出典を示す。

再利用またはAI

別の授業の論文を再利用する前に尋ねる。AIが認められる場合でも、ツールと作業を開示し、無印の出力を貼り付けない。Princetonはチャットボットを出典ではなくアルゴリズムとして扱う。

Plagiarism is presenting another person’s ideas, words, or entire work as your own.

Plagiarism may sometimes have legal repercussions (e.g., when it involves copyright infringement) but is always unethical.

Plagiarism is presenting another person’s ideas, information, expressions, or entire work as one’s own.

Plagiarism is the act of presenting the words, ideas, or images of another as your own; it denies authors or creators of content the credit they are due.

Whether deliberate or unintentional, plagiarism violates ethical standards in scholarship (see APA Ethics Code Standard 8.11, Plagiarism).

In academic writing, it is considered plagiarism to draw any idea or any language from someone else without adequately crediting that source in your paper.

Taking credit for anyone else's work is stealing, and it is unacceptable in all academic situations, whether you do it intentionally or by accident.

The use of any outside source without proper acknowledgment.

In an instructional setting, plagiarism occurs when a writer deliberately uses someone else’s language, ideas, or other original (not common-knowledge) material without acknowledging its source.

A student who attempts (even if clumsily) to identify and credit his or her source, but who misuses a specific citation format or incorrectly uses quotation marks or other forms of identifying material taken from other sources, has not plagiarized.

出典の一節

American Exceptionalism as our founders conceived it was defined by what America was, at home. Foreign policy existed to defend, not define, what America was.

言い換え(不適切)

American exceptionalism as the founding fathers envisioned the concept was given meaning by America as a homeland. Programs focused on other countries were there to protect America, not delineate it.

言い換え(適切)

As conceived, American exceptionalism was based on the country’s domestic identity, which foreign policy did not shape but merely guarded.

本文中、クレジット付き(MLA)

As Walter A. McDougall argues, for the founding fathers American exceptionalism was based on the country’s domestic identity, which foreign policy did not shape but merely guarded (37).

文献

McDougall, Walter A. Promised Land, Crusader State: The American Encounter with the World since 1776. Houghton Mifflin, 1997.

出典の一節

Everyone uses the word language and everybody these days talks about culture. . . . “Languaculture” is a reminder, I hope, of the necessary connection between its two parts. . . .

本文中(誤り)

At the intersection of language and culture lies a concept that has been called “languaculture.”

本文中(正しい)

At the intersection of language and culture lies a concept that Michael Agar calls “languaculture” (60).

文献

Agar, Michael. Language Shock: Understanding the Culture of Conversation. HarperCollins Publishers, 2016.

出典の材料

Why did urban Black populations in the North increase so dramatically between 1940 and 1970? After a period of reduced mobility during the Great Depression, Black out-migration from the South resumed at an accelerated pace after 1940. Wartime jobs in the defense industry and in naval shipyards led to substantial Black migration to California and other Pacific states for the first time since the Migration began. Migration continued apace to midwestern cities in the 1950s and1960s, as the booming automobile industry attracted millions more Black southerners to the North, particularly to cities like Detroit or Cleveland. Of the six million Black migrants who left the South during the Great Migration, four million of them migrated between 1940 and 1970 alone.

剽窃版(Harvardのコメント)

学生の書き出し(“But things changed mid-century.”)に、Derenoncourtの続く文をほぼ逐語で転用したもの。二文を省いても、残りが自分のものにはなりません。

出典付きの適切な言い換え

But things changed mid-century. In fact, as Derenoncourt (2022) explains, the wartime increase in jobs in both defense and naval shipyards marked the first time during the Great Migration that Black southerners went to California and other west coast states. After the war, the increase in jobs in the car industry led to Black southerners choosing cities in the midwest, including Detroit and Cleveland.

適切な引用と言い換えの組み合わせ

But things changed mid-century. In fact, as Derenoncourt (2022) explains, “after a period of reduced mobility during the Great Depression, Black out-migration from the South resumed at an accelerated pace after 1940” (p. 379). Derenoncourt notes that after the war, the increase in jobs in the car industry led to Black southerners choosing cities in the midwest, including Detroit and Cleveland.

参照(APA、Harvardの掲載どおり)

Derenoncourt, E. (2022). Can you move to opportunity? Evidence from the Great Migration. The American Economic Review, 112(2), 369–408. https://doi.org/10.1257/aer.20200002

Persad et al. (2008)、Harvardが掲載する一節

Indeed, of the more than 3500 hours of instruction during medical school, an average of less than 60 hours are devoted to all of bioethics, health law and health economics combined. Most of the instruction is during the preclinical courses, leaving very little instructional time when students are experiencing bioethical or legal challenges during their hands-on, clinical training. More than 60 percent of the instructors in bioethics, health law, and health economics have not published since 1990 on the topic they are teaching.

Cambra-Badii et al. (2021)、Harvardが掲載する一節

Students can absorb the educational messages in medical dramas when they view them for entertainment. In fact, even though they were not created specifically for education, these programs can be seen as an entertainment-education tool [43, 44]. In entertainment-education shows, viewers are exposed to educational content in entertainment contexts, using visual language that is easy to understand and triggers emotional engagement [45]. The enhanced emotional engagement and cognitive development [5] and moral imagination make students more sensitive to training [22].

適切なPersadの言い換え(Harvard)

In order to advocate for the use of medical television shows in the medical education system, it is also important to look at the current bioethical curriculum. According to Persad et al. (2008), only about one percent of teaching time throughout the four years of medical school is spent on ethics. As the researchers argue, this presents a problem because the students are being taught about ethical issues before they have a chance to experience those issues themselves. They also note that more than sixty percent of instructors teaching bioethics to medical students have no recent publications in the subject.

適切なCambra-Badiiの言い換えと学生自身の結び(Harvard)

The research suggests that medical dramas may be a promising source for discussions of medical ethics. Cambra-Badii et al. (2021) explain that even when watched for entertainment, medical shows can help viewers engage emotionally with the characters and may prime them to be more receptive to training in medical ethics. There may be further applications to this type of education: the role of entertainment as a way of encouraging students to consider ethical situations could be extended to other professions, including law or even education.

Persadの参照(APA、Harvardの掲載どおり)

Persad, G.C., Elder, L., Sedig,L., Flores, L., & Emanuel, E. (2008). The current state of medical school education in bioethics, health law, and health economics. Journal of Law, Medicine, and Ethics 36, 89-94.

Cambra-Badiiの参照(APA、Harvardの掲載どおり)

Cambra-Badii, I., Moyano, E., Ortega, I., Josep-E Baños, & Sentí, M. (2021). TV medical dramas: Health sciences students’ viewing habits and potential for teaching issues related to bioethics and professionalism. BMC Medical Education, 21, 1-11. doi: https://doi.org/10.1186/s12909-021-02947-7

Word plagiarism occurs when you use another author’s exact words or phrases without quotation marks.

Idea plagiarism occurs when you present an idea from another source without citing the author and year.

Ward et al. (2006)の例の一節

Findings indicate that media content is not uniformly negative. Information about sexual health, risks, and thoughtful decision-making is sometimes present.

剽窃(パッチライト)の例

According to Ward et al. (2006), media content is not all negative, and information is sometimes present concerning sexual health, risks, and thoughtful decision-making.

APAが引用している出典の参照

Ward, L. M., Day, K. M., & Epstein, M. (2006). Uncommonly good: Exploring how mass media may be a positive influence on young women's sexual health and development. New Directions for Child and Adolescent Development, 2006(112). https://doi.org/10.1002/cd.162

出典の一節

Though there is much to be said for this argument, I do not think the main problem with enhancement and genetic engineering is that they undermine effort and erode human agency. The deeper danger is that they represent a kind of hyperagency—a Promethean aspiration to remake nature, including human nature, to serve our purposes and satisfy our desires. The problem is not the drift to mechanism but the drive to mastery. And what the drive to mastery misses and may even destroy is an appreciation of the gifted character of human powers and achievements.

不十分な言い換え(Harvard)

The main problem with enhancement and genetic engineering is not that they undermine effort and erode human agency. The bigger problem is that they represent a kind of hyperagency—a Promethean desire to remake nature, including human nature, to serve our purposes and satisfy our desires. The problem is not the drift to mechanism but the drive to mastery. And what the drive to mastery misses and may even destroy is an appreciation of the gifts that make our achievements possible (Sandel).

適切な言い換え(Harvard)

Michael Sandel disagrees with the argument that genetic engineering is a problem because it replaces the need for humans to work hard and make their own choices. Instead, he argues that we should be more concerned that the decision to use genetic enhancement is motivated by a desire to take control of nature and bend it to our will instead of appreciating its gifts.

文献(MLA、Harvardの掲載どおり)

Sandel, Michael. “The Case Against Perfection.” The Atlantic, April 2004, https://www.theatlantic.com/magazine/archive/2004/04/the-case-against-perfection/302927/.

適切なNguyenの言い換え

According to Nguyen (2020), echo chambers and epistemic bubbles have different origins. Nguyen argues that while epistemic bubbles can be created organically, it’s more likely that echo chambers will be formed by those who wish to keep or even grow their control over the information that people hear and understand.

適切なMaskの引用

After all, “in New York, even addresses are for sale. The city allows a developer, for the bargain price of $11,000 (as of 2019), to apply to change the street address to something more attractive” (Mask 229).

Nguyenの参照(APA、Harvardの掲載どおり)

Nguyen, C. (2020). Echo chambers and epistemic bubbles. Episteme, 17(2), 141-161. doi:10.1017/epi.2018.32

Maskの文献(MLA、Harvardの掲載どおり)

Mask, Deirdre. The Address Book: What Street Addresses Reveal About Identity, Race, Wealth, and Power. St. Martin’s Griffin, 2021.

学部生の宣誓(§2.4.3)

This paper represents my own work in accordance with University regulations.

From time to time this submerged or latent theater in Hamlet becomes almost overt. It is close to the surface in Hamlet’s pretense of madness, the “antic disposition” he puts on to protect himself and prevent his antagonists from plucking out the heart of his mystery. It is even closer to the surface when Hamlet enters his mother’s room and holds up, side by side, the pictures of the two kings, Old Hamlet and Claudius, and proceeds to describe for her the true nature of the choice she has made, presenting truth by means of a show. Similarly, when he leaps into the open grave at Ophelia’s funeral, ranting in high heroic terms, he is acting out for Laertes, and perhaps for himself as well, the folly of excessive, melodramatic expressions of grief.

逐語剽窃(公式コメント)

Aside from an opening sentence loosely adapted from the original and reworded more simply, this entire passage is taken almost word-for-word from the source. The few small alterations of the source do not relieve the writer of the responsibility to attribute these words to their original author.

モザイク剽窃(公式コメント)

If even one phrase is good enough to borrow, it must be properly set off by quotation marks.

出典なしの言い換え(公式コメント)

Almost nothing of Alvin Kernan’s original language remains in this rewritten paragraph. However the key idea, the choice and order of the examples, and even the basic structure of the original sentences are all taken from the source.

The only source material that you can use in an essay without attribution is material that is considered common knowledge and is therefore not attributable to one source.

Facts, ideas, and language that are distinct and unique products of a particular individual's work do not count as common knowledge and must always be cited.

Self-plagiarism is the presentation of your own previously published work as original; like plagiarism, self-plagiarism is unethical.

Self-plagiarism deceives readers by making it appear that more information is available on a topic than really exists.

Duplicate publication is publication of a paper that overlaps substantially with one already published, without clear, visible reference to the previous publication.

As defined in section 2.4.7, generative artificial intelligence (AI) is not a source, since its output is not produced by a person.

If generative AI is permitted by the instructor (for brainstorming, outlining, etc.), students must disclose its use rather than cite or acknowledge the use, since it is an algorithm rather than a source.

I am indebted to the members of my Expos 20 section for sparking my thoughts about the role of the narrator as Greek Chorus in Tim O'Brien's The Things They Carried.

Many instances of unintentional plagiarism can be traced back to sloppily taken notes during the research process.

Once you have carefully tracked your research, avoiding plagiarism is relatively straightforward: when the work of others informs your ideas, give credit by summarizing or paraphrasing that work or by accurately quoting it—and always cite your source.

You must cite the source for any words, ideas, or methods that are not your own.

When you quote the exact words of a source, you must put those words in quotation marks or a block quotation, even if you cite the source in your own text.

When you paraphrase the words of a source, you must use your own sentences, not sentences so similar to the original that they are almost a quotation.

Never paraphrase or quote from a source without immediately adding a citation.

In every case, the consequences of plagiarism are much more serious than the consequences of turning in a paper late or turning in a paper you're not satisfied to have written.

Although such services may be tempting, they are not always reliable.

The only adequate defense for a student accused of an academic violation is that the conduct in question does not, in fact, constitute a violation.

Neither the defense that the student was ignorant of the regulations concerning academic violations nor the defense that the student was under pressure at the time the violation was committed is considered an adequate defense or a mitigating factor.

The mere listing of a source in a bibliography shall not be considered a “proper acknowledgment” for specific use of that source within the essay or report.

This is not a valid excuse. The student is responsible for taking adequate notes so that debts of phrasing may be acknowledged where they are due.