如何为课程论文或研究论文写结论

课程论文 / 人文学科论文：

这样读来，是[证据之后重述的中心主张]，而不仅仅是[题目]。它改变我们看待[文本、事件或论争]的方式，因为[正文赢得的 so what]。下一个问题是[在分析之前本无意义的问题]。

实证 / IMRaD论文（Discussion，不是第二份Results清单）：

这些结果表明[一句话的发现]，与[点名的既有研究]一致，与[该设计实际能检验的对立假设]不一致。主要局限是[会改变解释的那一项]。一项有用的后续研究应[能补上该缺口的设计]。

政策或应用论文：

因为[论文中已有的证据]，[谁]应当[发现所支持的具体行动]，而不是[通常的替代方案]。维持现行做法不变，将[论文实际能辩护的后果]。

Your conclusion is your chance to have the last word on the subject. The conclusion allows you to have the final say on the issues you have raised in your paper, to synthesize your thoughts, to demonstrate the importance of your ideas, and to propel your reader to a new view of the subject.

Just as your introduction acts as a bridge that transports your readers from their own lives into the “place” of your analysis, your conclusion can provide a bridge to help your readers make the transition back to their daily lives.

Synthesize, don’t summarize. Include a brief summary of the paper’s main points, but don’t simply repeat things that were in your paper. Instead, show your reader how the points you made and the support and examples you used fit together. Pull it all together.

Your conclusion can go beyond the confines of the assignment. The conclusion pushes beyond the boundaries of the prompt and allows you to consider broader issues, make new connections, and elaborate on the significance of your findings.

Your conclusion should make your readers glad they read your paper. Your conclusion gives your reader something to take away that will help them see things differently or appreciate your topic in personally relevant ways. It can suggest broader implications that will not only interest your reader, but also enrich your reader’s life in some way. It is your gift to the reader.

A strong conclusion will provide a sense of closure to the essay while again placing your concepts in a somewhat wider context. It will also, in some instances, add a stimulus to further thought.

A conclusion is not merely a summary of your points or a re-statement of your thesis. If you wish to summarize—and often you must—do so in fresh language. Remind the reader of how the evidence you’ve presented has contributed to your thesis.

A good last sentence leaves your reader with something to think about, a concept in some way illuminated by what you’ve written in the paper.

You might begin a conclusion by reminding the reader of your thesis and main points, but a conclusion is not a summary. A successful conclusion brings your argument to a logical close; it is where you justify your argument to the reader.

Use your conclusion to describe the consequences of your argument, to answer the question “why is my argument important?”

Do not begin with the unnecessary and over-worked phrase “in conclusion.”

Make a reasonable final claim; don't overstate your findings.

Take special care with your final sentence; make sure it is carefully constructed and leaves a strong impression.

Papers usually end with a concluding section, often called the “Discussion.” The Discussion is your opportunity to evaluate and interpret the results of your study or paper, draw inferences and conclusions from it, and communicate its contributions to science and/or society. Use the present tense when writing the Discussion section.

In the Discussion section of a research paper, you should evaluate and interpret the implications of study results with respect to your original hypotheses. It is also where you can discuss your study’s importance, present its strengths and limitations, and propose new directions for future research.

连接发现的官方用语（填空；不要捏造研究）：

This pattern of results is consistent with the previous literature … (citation).

写局限的官方用语：

One limitation of this study is that … It is possible that ... Although the present research cannot rule out these explanations, it seems useful to point out issues that may conflict with these results.

It is useful to begin the discussion by briefly summarizing the main findings, and explore possible mechanisms or explanations for these findings. Emphasize the new and important aspects of your study and put your findings in the context of the totality of the relevant evidence. State the limitations of your study, and explore the implications of your findings for future research and for clinical practice or policy.

Discuss the influence or association of variables, such as sex and/or gender, on your findings, where appropriate, and the limitations of the data. Do not repeat in detail data or other information given in other parts of the manuscript, such as in the Introduction or the Results section.

Link the conclusions with the goals of the study but avoid unqualified statements and conclusions not adequately supported by the data. In particular, distinguish between clinical and statistical significance, and avoid making statements on economic benefits and costs unless the manuscript includes the appropriate economic data and analyses. Avoid claiming priority or alluding to work that has not been completed. State new hypotheses when warranted, but label them clearly.

How you conclude your paper will depend on where you started—and where you traveled.

In a short paper—even a research paper—you don’t need to provide an exhaustive summary as part of your conclusion.

After the “what” and the “so what,” you should leave your reader with some final thoughts.

What can my readers now understand, see in a new light, or grapple with that they would not have understood in the same way before reading my paper?

What questions can I now raise that would not have made sense at the beginning of my paper? Questions for further research? Other ways that this topic could be approached?

fake transitions like “in conclusion” that are followed by sentences that aren’t actually conclusions. (“In conclusion, I have now demonstrated that my thesis is correct.”)

论点（论文要证明的）：

While socialization may indeed be an important factor in RS, I argue that individuals with ADHD may also possess a neurological predisposition to RS that is exacerbated by the differing executive and emotional regulation characteristic of ADHD.

结论回声（文献之后重述的what）：

This literature demonstrates that, as with many other conditions, ADHD and RS share a delicately intertwined pattern of neurological similarities that is rooted in the innate biology of an individual’s mind, a connection that cannot be explained in full by the behavioral mediation hypothesis.

Now-what（过错与治疗）：

seems to place a degree of fault on the individual. It implies that individuals with ADHD must have elicited such frequent or intense rejection by virtue of their inadequate social skills, erasing the possibility that they may simply possess a natural sensitivity to emotion.

Now-what（谁该在意）：

has profound implications for understanding how individuals with ADHD might best be treated in educational settings, by counselors, family, peers, or even society as a whole.

你：

Basically, I’m just saying that education was important to Douglass.

朋友：

So what?

你：

Well, it was important because it was a key to him feeling like a free and equal citizen.

朋友：

Why should anybody care?

你：

That’s important because plantation owners tried to keep slaves from being educated so that they could maintain control. When Douglass obtained an education, he undermined that control personally.

Return to the theme or themes in the introduction. This strategy brings the reader full circle. For example, if you begin by describing a scenario, you can end with the same scenario as proof that your essay is helpful in creating a new understanding.

Propose a course of action, a solution to an issue, or questions for further study. This can redirect your reader’s thought process and help them to apply your info and ideas to their own life or to see the broader implications.

Point to broader implications. For example, if your paper examines the Greensboro sit-ins or another event in the Civil Rights Movement, you could point out its impact on the Civil Rights Movement as a whole. A paper about the style of writer Virginia Woolf could point to her influence on other writers or on later feminists.

If your essay deals with a contemporary problem, warn readers of the possible consequences of not attending to the problem.

Recommend a specific course of action.

Use an apt quotation or expert opinion to lend authority to the conclusion you have reached.

Give a startling statistic, fact, or visual image to drive home the ultimate point of your paper.

If your discipline encourages personal reflection, illustrate your concluding point with a relevant narrative drawn from your own life experiences.

Return to an anecdote, example, or quotation that you introduced in your introduction, but add further insight that derives from the body of your essay.

In a science or social science paper, mention worthwhile avenues for future research on your topic.

A policy briefing usually includes an introduction but may conclude with a series of recommendations.

Beginning with an unnecessary, overused phrase such as “in conclusion,” “in summary,” or “in closing.” Although these phrases can work in speeches, they come across as wooden and trite in writing.

Stating the thesis for the very first time in the conclusion.

Introducing a new idea or subtopic in your conclusion.

Ending with a rephrased thesis statement without any substantive changes.

Making sentimental, emotional appeals that are out of character with the rest of an analytical paper.

Including evidence (quotations, statistics, etc.) that should be in the body of the paper.

a complete restatement of all that you have said in your paper.

a substantial counterargument that you do not have space to refute; you should introduce counterarguments before your conclusion.

an apology for what you have not said. If you need to explain the scope of your paper, you should do this sooner—but don’t apologize for what you have not discussed in your paper.

“That’s My Story and I’m Sticking to It”：

In conclusion, Frederick Douglass was, as we have seen, a pioneer in American education, proving that education was a major force for social change with regard to slavery.

“Sherlock Holmes”（论点压到最后才说）：

So, as the evidence above demonstrates, Douglass saw education as a way to undermine the slaveholders’ power and also an important step toward freedom.

“America the Beautiful” / “I Am Woman” / “We Shall Overcome”：

Because of the efforts of fine Americans like Frederick Douglass, countless others have seen the shining beacon of light that is education. His example was a torch that lit the way for others. Frederick Douglass was truly an American hero.

“Grab Bag”：

In addition to being an educational pioneer, Frederick Douglass provides an interesting case study for masculinity in the American South. He also offers historians an interesting glimpse into slave resistance when he confronts Covey, the overseer. His relationships with female relatives reveal the importance of family in the slave community.

For most essays, one well-developed paragraph is sufficient for a conclusion. In some cases, a two-or-three paragraph conclusion may be appropriate. As with introductions, the length of the conclusion should reflect the length of the essay.

It is a natural, human inclination to wonder if God exists. Aquinas, like many other philosophers, attempted to prove God’s existence through logical reasoning. His arguments, however, seem to be based on the presumption that there is in fact a God. He went on from this supposition to question human concepts, such as the way that we determine what is good, true, and noble. If no obvious, tangible cause for a concept or behavior could be found, he concluded that God must be the cause and then claimed proof of God’s existence. Aquinas was clearly biased in his study of God; he seemed to have a firm belief that God exists before he began the process of logical reasoning. This fault would be a problem for anyone trying to prove God’s existence through concrete logic. There is something uncertain and enigmatic about the concepts of God and religious belief that logic will never be able to penetrate.

The physical disabilities of the girl serve as symbolic functions that affect how the reader interprets her relationship with the magistrate. These injuries lend themselves to symbolism because they are reflections of the weaknesses in all people—the insecurities, the compassion, and the love for one another that may manifest itself in various forms. Coetzee applies this symbolism to the complex relationship between two very different characters. The effect is a complicated and often contradictory representation of love and the emotions closely related to it.

The coming of capitalism and modernization to China does not indicate that democracy will follow. Strong forces both within and without the CCP ensure that the status quo of one-party politics will remain. According to political theorist Samuel Huntington, there are three ways a country can democratize. There can be transformation of the power elites; however, the likelihood of this occurring under Hu Jintao, with supporters in the Standing Committee, is slim. Democratic transition may occur through replacement, but the support the CCP receives from wealthy entrepreneurs and the middle class precludes the likelihood of collapse or overthrow. Transformation, the third path to democratization, is a mixture of the first two forms and thus unlikely. The verdict is in; despite prospects for democracy, the hallmark of the present era will be increased market reform without the democratic baggage.

原来的教学论点：

The Wrightwood homeowners’ association should put street cleaning services in the budget because doing so will remove trash from the street gutter, deter pests, and improve the overall appearance of the neighborhood.

正文之后重述的主张：

Providing street cleaning services to the Wrightwood neighborhood will help improve the neighborhood in three important ways.

完整教学收束（无新证据）：

Providing street cleaning services to the Wrightwood neighborhood will help improve the neighborhood in three important ways. The services will keep the gutters clear, allowing rainwater to drain and avoid flooding. It will also deter pests by removing easy food sources. Improving the look and safety of the neighborhood will result in a better appearance, adding value to all the homes in the neighborhood. Having street cleaning services will improve the entire neighborhood and benefit all of the residents equally.

You may notice that the example uses no new evidence. This is because there should be no new ideas, information, or claims to support in your concluding paragraph.

Avoid starting the concluding paragraph with phrases like “In conclusion” or “In summary”. Phrases like these are informal because they are directed toward the reader and create a sudden shift in tone.

样本或档案有边界时用：

这一读法限于[你实际分析的文本或年份]；它并不裁定后来的版本或其他档案会如何回答同一问题。

用在实证Discussion：

该设计无法把[变量A]与[变量B]分开，因此不应把该关联读成因果主张。一项有用的后续研究应[能把两者分开的检验]。

不要这样写：

这篇论文有许多局限，可能是错的，但我仍希望它有用。（那是Harvard所说的道歉，不是局限。）

• 跳过正文的读者仍能看见主张，而不是目录
• 论点被重述，而不是从引言粘贴过来
• 至少有一句回答“why should anybody care?”（UNC）
• 没有新来源、图表或子题第一次出现
• 收束匹配作业：课程论文、Discussion或建议
• 若要求写局限，它改变解释，而不是道歉
• 最后一句是思考，不是清嗓子式的过渡
• 收束所依赖的每一条来源已在正文引用；用APA、MLA或Chicago格式化那些记录